Psychoanalytic Criticism

Psychoanalytic Criticism

Psychoanalytic criticism offers a distinct approach to literary analysis, originating in the early twentieth century with the work of Sigmund Freud. Unlike methods focusing purely on textual form or historical context, psychoanalytic criticism explores underlying psychological forces it assumes are at play within literature – emanating from the author, the characters, the narrative structure, or even influencing the reader's interpretation. It posits that literature, like dreams, operates on a hidden, unconscious level, revealing repressed desires, fears, and conflicts. This focus on the internal, often concealed, aspects of human experience makes it a potentially potent tool for exploring the complexities of diaspora.

The inherent themes within diaspora narratives – concerning identity formation, psychic trauma, fractured memories, displacement, and the negotiation of belonging – resonate strongly with psychoanalytic concepts. By examining the text through a psychoanalytic lens, we can attempt to uncover the latent psychological dimensions shaping the representation of Nikkei diaspora experiences. This page aims to outline the core principles of psychoanalytic criticism and demonstrate its application to Nikkei diaspora literature.

Understanding Psychoanalytic Criticism

Psychoanalytic criticism emerged alongside Freud's development of psychoanalysis itself in the early 1900s. Freud used literary examples (like Sophocles' Oedipus Rex) to illustrate his theories, and literary critics soon began applying his ideas back onto literature. This approach represented a significant shift, suggesting that texts were not merely consciously crafted artefacts but also expressions of deep-seated, often unconscious, psychological patterns. It diverged sharply from approaches that privileged authorial intention (seeing the unconscious as a more significant driver) or purely formal analysis (looking 'beneath' the surface structure).

Sigmund Freud is the foundational figure, introducing concepts like the unconscious, the id, ego, and superego, defence mechanisms (especially repression), and the significance of early childhood experiences (including the Oedipus complex). Later thinkers, such as Jacques Lacan, introduced post-structuralist perspectives, focusing on the relationship between language, the unconscious, and the formation of the subject, which also influenced psychoanalytic literary theory, particularly regarding identity and desire. The development of these ideas established psychoanalysis as a powerful, albeit sometimes controversial, interpretive framework within literary studies.

At its heart, psychoanalytic criticism operates on several core tenets. Firstly, it asserts the primacy of the unconscious mind in shaping human behaviour, motivation, and creative expression. Repressed desires, traumas, and unresolved conflicts are believed to surface symbolically in literary works. Secondly, it views characters within texts as psychological subjects whose actions, relationships, and internal struggles can be analysed using psychoanalytic concepts (like defence mechanisms or Oedipal dynamics). Thirdly, it often interprets symbolism within texts (objects, settings, actions) as potentially representing unconscious material, similar to the manifest content of a dream hiding latent thoughts. Finally, whilst some variations exist, the classic approach often involves looking for evidence of psychic patterns (like obsession, repetition, or fragmentation) within the narrative structure itself or potentially reflecting the author's own psychic landscape (though this 'psychobiography' approach is often viewed critically today).

Key Concepts

Several key Freudian concepts are central to psychoanalytic literary criticism:

• The Unconscious: The part of the mind containing thoughts, memories, and desires of which the individual is unaware but which exert a powerful influence on behaviour and creative work. Literature is seen as a potential pathway to accessing or representing this hidden realm.

• Id, Ego, and Superego: Freud's model of the psyche. The id represents primal drives and desires (pleasure principle); the superego represents internalised societal rules and morality (conscience); the ego mediates between the id, the superego, and external reality (reality principle). Literary characters are often analysed in terms of the conflicts between these forces.

• Defence Mechanisms: Unconscious strategies used by the ego to protect itself from anxiety arising from unacceptable thoughts or feelings. Key examples include:

  • Repression: Pushing distressing thoughts/memories into the unconscious.

  • Displacement: Shifting impulses from an unacceptable target onto a safer one.

  • Sublimation: Channelling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities (including artistic creation).

  • Projection: Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts/feelings to others.

• Oedipus Complex (and Electra Complex): The theory describing a child's unconscious desire for the opposite-sex parent and feelings of rivalry towards the same-sex parent. In criticism, this is often applied more broadly to analyse power dynamics, family relationships, and struggles with authority within texts.

• Symbolism and Dream Work: Freud analysed dreams as having manifest content (what is remembered) and latent content (the hidden meaning). The processes transforming latent to manifest content (like condensation – merging multiple ideas into one symbol, and displacement – shifting emphasis) are used to interpret literary symbols and narrative events.

• Trauma: Psychoanalysis provides frameworks for understanding how traumatic experiences (particularly early ones) can be repressed but continue to shape the psyche, potentially returning through flashbacks, nightmares, or neurotic symptoms – patterns often explored in trauma literature.

Applying Psychoanalytic Criticism to Nikkei Diaspora Literature

A psychoanalytic reading of Nikkei diaspora literature focuses on uncovering latent psychological dimensions beneath the surface narrative. It examines character motivations, recurring symbols, narrative gaps, and representations of memory and trauma through the lens of unconscious processes and conflicts.

Let us reconsider Joy Kogawa's Obasan. A psychoanalytic approach might explore:

• Repression and Silence: The novel's pervasive silence surrounding the mother's fate and the wartime trauma can be interpreted as collective and individual repression. Obasan's silence and Naomi's inability to speak or fully remember function as defence mechanisms against overwhelming psychic pain. The narrative itself enacts this repression through its fragmented structure and delayed revelations.

• Trauma and the Return of the Repressed: The fragmented memories, the recurring symbolic imagery (water, stone), and Naomi's physical and emotional responses can be seen as manifestations of repressed trauma resurfacing. The narrative charts the difficult process of the ego (Naomi's consciousness) gradually confronting this repressed material.

• Family Dynamics and Identity: The absent mother figure is central. Psychoanalytically, this absence can be explored in terms of its impact on Naomi's psychic development, her sense of self (ego formation), and her capacity for connection. The complex triangulation with Aunt Emily (representing outspokenness/reality principle?) and Obasan (representing silence/endurance/perhaps the repressed?) shapes Naomi's internal conflict.

• Symbolic Language: Elements like the coulee, the attic, letters, and photographs can be analysed for symbolic meanings related to the unconscious, memory, loss, and the body. The stone bread, for instance, might symbolise repressed grief, hardened trauma, or the indigestible nature of the past.

• The Interplay of Id, Ego, Superego: One might analyse Naomi's struggle as the ego attempting to navigate the traumatic memories and impulses surfacing (from the id?) against the societal and familial pressures (superego influences demanding silence or propriety) to understand the past and form a coherent identity.

Throughout such an analysis, the critic seeks to illuminate how unconscious forces shape the characters' experiences and the narrative's representation of the historical trauma central to the Nikkei Canadian experience in the novel.

Advantages and Limitations of Psychoanalytic Criticism

Psychoanalytic criticism offers distinct advantages for analysing literature, including Nikkei diaspora texts. It provides tools for in-depth character analysis, moving beyond surface actions to explore potential hidden motivations, anxieties, and internal conflicts. It excels at interpreting symbolism, ambiguity, and non-linear narrative structures often found in texts dealing with trauma and memory. This approach can powerfully illuminate the psychological impact of displacement, racism, internment, and intergenerational trauma depicted in Nikkei literature.

However, psychoanalytic criticism also faces significant limitations. It can lead to overly deterministic or reductive readings, fitting complex characters or situations into pre-set theoretical moulds (e.g., seeing Oedipal conflicts everywhere). There is a risk of psychologising historical events, potentially downplaying the crucial socio-political contexts that shape Nikkei experiences like internment. Applying Western psychoanalytic models developed in specific cultural contexts requires sensitivity and critical awareness when analysing literature from different cultural backgrounds like the Japanese diaspora. Furthermore, interpretations often rely on inferred unconscious content, which can be speculative and difficult to substantiate textually. The focus on individual or familial psychology might sometimes overshadow the collective, community-based experiences vital to diaspora identity. A balanced approach, integrating psychoanalytic insights with historical, cultural, and formal analysis, is often most productive.

Conclusion

Psychoanalytic criticism, by focusing on the dynamics of the unconscious, provides a valuable lens for exploring the deeper psychological dimensions of Nikkei diaspora literature. It offers ways to analyse how profound experiences of trauma, identity negotiation, memory, and loss are processed and represented within narrative and characterisation. Its concepts help to illuminate the hidden anxieties, repressed histories, and internal conflicts that often underpin the surface of these powerful texts.

However, employing this approach requires careful consideration of its limitations. It is essential to ground psychoanalytic interpretations within the specific textual evidence and the broader historical and cultural context of the Nikkei diaspora, avoiding speculative or culturally insensitive applications. When used thoughtfully and often in conjunction with other critical methods, psychoanalytic criticism can significantly enrich our understanding of the complex inner worlds depicted in Nikkei diaspora literature and the enduring psychic legacies of historical events.

Further reading

Brooks, Peter. Reading for the Plot: Design and Intention in Narrative. Alfred A. Knopf, 1984.

Brooks applies psychoanalytic concepts, particularly Freud's model of psychic dynamics described in Beyond the Pleasure Principle, to the study of narrative structure. He argues that the trajectory of a plot mirrors the dynamics of desire, repetition, and the drive towards an end (quiescence, or 'death'). Brooks analyses how narratives generate and manage tension, proposing that reading itself is driven by a desire to uncover origins and reach conclusions, mimicking fundamental psychic processes. This work was highly influential in shifting psychoanalytic criticism towards analysing narrative form and the reader's engagement, rather than focusing solely on authorial psychobiography or character analysis. It remains a cornerstone text for understanding psychoanalytic approaches to narrative theory.

Ellmann, Maud. Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism. Longman, 1994.

Part of the Longman Critical Readers series, this book provides a concise yet sophisticated introduction to psychoanalytic literary criticism. Ellmann covers key Freudian concepts (the unconscious, Oedipus complex, narcissism) and Lacanian ideas (the mirror stage, the registers of the Symbolic, Imaginary, and Real), explaining their relevance and application to literary texts. The book includes excerpts from major theorists and illustrative readings of literary works. Ellmann's approach is noted for its clarity and its focus on the often complex and challenging aspects of psychoanalytic thought, particularly concerning language, subjectivity, and sexual difference. It serves as an excellent resource for students needing a theoretically informed overview of the field.

Felman, Shoshana, editor. Literature and Psychoanalysis: The Question of Reading: Otherwise. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982.

This influential collection of essays explores the intricate and often reciprocal relationship between literature and psychoanalysis. Rather than simply applying psychoanalysis to literature, many essays here investigate how literature challenges, informs, or anticipates psychoanalytic thought. Contributors include prominent figures like Jacques Derrida, Barbara Johnson, and Felman herself. The volume examines topics such as transference, blindness and insight, the act of reading, and the role of language in both fields. It represents a sophisticated, post-structuralist engagement with psychoanalytic criticism, moving beyond straightforward application towards a more complex theoretical dialogue. It is particularly useful for advanced students and researchers interested in the theoretical intersections of these disciplines.

Freud, Sigmund. "Creative Writers and Day-dreaming." The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, translated1 and edited by James Strachey, vol. 9, Hogarth Press,2 1959, pp. 141-53.

In this seminal essay, Freud directly addresses the psychological roots of literary creation. He famously compares the creative writer to a child at play and to a daydreamer, suggesting that imaginative writing provides a socially acceptable outlet for fulfilling wishes and fantasies that might otherwise be repressed. Freud analyses the relationship between the writer's inner life (particularly childhood experiences and current frustrations) and the themes and characters found in their work. He also speculates on how literature achieves its emotional effect on the reader by tapping into universal, often unconscious, desires and conflicts. This essay is fundamental for understanding Freud's perspective on artistic sublimation and the psychological function of literature.

Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, translated3 and edited by James Strachey, vols. 4-5,4 Hogarth Press, 1953.

Although primarily a work outlining Freud's theory of dreams and the unconscious, this text is foundational for psychoanalytic literary criticism. Freud introduces key concepts such as the distinction between manifest content (the dream as remembered) and latent content (its hidden meaning), the mechanisms of dream-work (condensation, displacement, symbolism), and the idea that dreams represent disguised wish-fulfilments. Critics adopted these concepts as tools for literary interpretation, treating texts like dreams whose symbolic language and narrative structure could be deciphered to reveal underlying, unconscious meanings, conflicts, or desires related to the author, characters, or even cultural anxieties. Familiarity with Freud's method here is essential for grasping much of subsequent psychoanalytic criticism.

Lacan, Jacques. Écrits: The First Complete Edition in English. Translated by Bruce Fink, W. W. Norton & Company, 2006.

This volume collects the major writings of Jacques Lacan, a highly influential (and often challenging) post-Freudian psychoanalyst whose work revolutionised psychoanalytic theory, particularly its intersection with linguistics and philosophy. Key essays for literary critics include "The Mirror Stage as Formative of the Function of the I," "The Instance of the Letter in the Unconscious, or Reason since Freud," and "The Signification of the Phallus." Lacan re-read Freud through structural linguistics, emphasising that "the unconscious is structured like a language." His theories concerning subjectivity, desire, lack, the gaze, and the Symbolic, Imaginary, and Real orders have profoundly impacted literary and cultural theory since the late twentieth century, offering complex frameworks for analysing identity, language, and power within texts.

Wright, Elizabeth. Psychoanalytic Criticism: A Reappraisal. Polity Press, 1998.

This revised and updated version of Wright's earlier introductory text (1984) provides a comprehensive overview of psychoanalytic literary criticism, from Freud to contemporary post-structuralist and feminist applications. Wright clearly explains core concepts from Freud, Klein, Lacan, Kristeva, and others, demonstrating their use in analysing literary texts. The book covers traditional applications (like character and author analysis) but also engages with more recent developments, including reader-response theory informed by psychoanalysis and critiques of psychoanalytic approaches. Its strength lies in its breadth and its clear exposition of complex ideas, making it an invaluable resource for students and scholars seeking a thorough grounding in the history, theories, and practices of psychoanalytic criticism.