New Criticism

New Criticism

New Criticism stands as a significant formalist approach within literary theory, holding a position of considerable influence in literary studies, particularly during the mid-20th century. This school of thought prioritises the intrinsic value of a work of art, directing critical attention to the literary text as a self-contained unit of meaning. Its prominence in American universities during this period, especially in the politically charged climate of the Cold War, suggests a perceived utility in offering a seemingly objective and politically neutral method for analysing literary works. This approach, by focusing on the text itself, potentially provided a way to navigate literary analysis without directly engaging with potentially divisive social or historical interpretations.

The very nature of diaspora, where individuals and communities reside outside their ancestral homeland, inherently involves intricate themes that a close examination of the text itself, as advocated by New Criticism, can illuminate. By focusing on the textual intricacies, it becomes possible to reveal how these liminal states of being both inside and outside a particular culture are represented through the nuanced use of language and various literary devices. This guide aims to elucidate the core principles of New Criticism and subsequently demonstrate its practical application within Nikkei diaspora literature.

Understanding New Criticism?

New Criticism emerged in the early to mid-20th century, primarily in the 1930s and 1940s, both in the United States and Britain. This development arose as a direct response to prevailing literary scholarship, particularly the older philological and literary history schools prevalent in the US North. These earlier approaches, heavily influenced by 19th-century German scholarship, concentrated on the history and meaning of individual words, tracing their connections to foreign and ancient languages, comparing sources, and examining the biographical circumstances of authors. Proponents of New Criticism contended that such methods tended to divert attention from the text itself, neglecting its aesthetic qualities in favour of external factors. The New Critics sought to redirect the focus of literary studies back to the meticulous analysis of the texts themselves. 

Key figures significantly shaped the formation of New Criticism. John Crowe Ransom's 1941 publication, The New Criticism, provided the movement with its name. The critical essays of T. S. Eliot also exerted a substantial influence. Eliot's evaluative judgements and his insistence on the impersonality of poetry played a crucial role in establishing the New Critical canon. Ransom, a prominent New Critic known for his essay "Criticism, Inc.," also inspired a generation of scholars through his teaching at Kenyon College, including influential figures like Allen Tate and Cleanth Brooks. The emergence of these key individuals and their influential writings was instrumental in codifying the principles of New Criticism and establishing it as a distinct and impactful school of thought within literary criticism.

At its core, New Criticism rests on several fundamental tenets. Firstly, it posits that the literary text is an autonomous and "closed" entity. This implies that everything necessary for understanding a work is contained within the text itself. New Critics believed that a literary work should be viewed as a self-contained and self-referential aesthetic object, with its meaning discoverable through a careful examination of its language, structure, and imagery. This emphasis on textual autonomy suggests that the meaning and value of a literary work are inherent and not dependent on external considerations.

Secondly, New Criticism prioritises "close reading" as the primary analytical technique. This involves a meticulous and detailed examination of the text to uncover its meaning and significance. Close reading, considered synonymous with New Criticism, focuses on the unity of the literary work. This method of analysis requires a deep engagement with the text, paying close attention to its language, imagery, allusions, syntax, and form. 

Thirdly, New Criticism rejects authorial intention as the sole determinant of a text's meaning, a concept known as the intentional fallacy. New Critics argued strongly against the relevance of an author's intended meaning in the analysis of a literary work, asserting that the words on the page are what truly matter. The belief is that the author's intention is ultimately unknowable and irrelevant to the reader's understanding of the text. This rejection underscores the autonomy of the text, shifting the focus from the author's mind to the work itself.

Finally, New Criticism dismisses reader response as the primary basis for evaluating a work, a concept termed the affective fallacy. New Critics discounted the reader's personal or emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analysis. They posited that a poem's worth should not be judged by its emotional effect on the reader. This stance aims for a more objective form of criticism grounded in the text's inherent qualities rather than subjective reader experiences.

Key Concepts

Several key concepts are central to understanding New Criticism. The intentional fallacy, articulated by Wimsatt and Beardsley, argues against the idea that an author's intention provides the definitive interpretation of their work. They believed that once a work is published, it exists independently of the author's mental state or intended message. The author's intention, they argued, is ultimately inaccessible and less important than the text itself. This perspective encourages critics to concentrate solely on the textual evidence for meaning.

The affective fallacy, also highlighted by Wimsatt and Beardsley, addresses the error of interpreting a text based on its emotional impact on the reader. New Critics believed that relying on subjective emotional responses could lead to biased and unreliable interpretations. The affective fallacy, therefore, advocates for an objective analysis that focuses on the text's formal elements and inherent qualities rather than the varied emotional experiences of individual readers.

The concept of the heresy of paraphrase further underscores the New Critical emphasis on the text itself. This idea suggests that the meaning of a poem is inextricably linked to its specific wording and structure, and that any attempt to paraphrase or summarise it will inevitably alter or diminish its true meaning. The unique combination of form and content in a literary work, according to this concept, cannot be separated without loss.

Applying New Criticism to Nikkei Diaspora Literature

A New Critical reading would focus intently on the language, imagery, and formal elements of a chosen text to understand how these themes are intrinsically woven into the fabric of the work itself.

Consider, for instance, Joy Kogawa's novel Obasan, a seminal work in Japanese Canadian literature that vividly portrays the incarcaeration of Japanese Canadians during World War II. A New Critical approach to Obasan would begin with a close reading of specific passages, paying particular attention to the use of language and literary devices.

One might examine the recurring motif of silence within the novel.  Kogawa employs silence not merely as an absence of sound but as a potent symbol of the enforced suppression of Japanese Canadian history and identity. Through close textual analysis, one can trace how this motif is developed through carefully chosen words, phrases, and imagery, revealing its central role in conveying the trauma and dispossession experienced by the characters. 

Furthermore, a New Critic would analyse the narrative structure of Obasan, noting its fragmented and non-linear form. This structure mirrors the fragmented memories and disrupted lives of the Japanese Canadians, reflecting the profound impact of their historical experiences. By focusing on the internal coherence of the text, the critic can demonstrate how the novel's form and content are intrinsically linked, contributing to its overall meaning and impact.

The novel's rich use of imagery, particularly in relation to the natural world, also provides fertile ground for New Critical analysis. For example, images of stone, earth, and water frequently appear in the text, often associated with themes of endurance, resilience, and the connection to the land. A close reading would explore how these recurring images contribute to the novel's thematic concerns, enriching our understanding of the characters' relationship to their environment and their sense of belonging.

Throughout this analysis, a New Critic would remain focused on the text itself, avoiding reliance on external information such as Kogawa's biography or the historical context of Japanese Canadian incarceration, except as it is explicitly evoked within the novel. The emphasis would be on how the literary work, through its internal elements, constructs meaning and conveys the complex experiences of the Nikkei diaspora. This method prioritises the text as a self-contained work of art, whose significance and interpretation arise from the intricate interplay of its various components.

Advantages and Limitations of New Criticism

New Criticism offers several advantages as a method of literary analysis. Its emphasis on close reading encourages a deep and nuanced engagement with the text, fostering a thorough understanding of its complexities and subtleties. By focusing on the intrinsic qualities of the work, New Criticism can reveal intricate patterns, ambiguities, and tensions that might be overlooked by approaches that prioritise external contexts.[6] This method can be particularly effective in uncovering the aesthetic achievements of a text and appreciating the artistry of its construction. 

Furthermore, the New Critical focus on the text itself provides a seemingly objective framework for analysis, reducing the influence of subjective biases or historical contingencies. This approach can be valuable in establishing a common ground for critical discussion, as the analysis is rooted in the shared experience of reading the text closely.  The emphasis on textual evidence encourages a rigorous and defensible interpretation of the work.

However, New Criticism also faces several limitations. Its deliberate exclusion of historical, cultural, and biographical contexts can lead to interpretations that are detached from the social realities and historical forces that shaped the work and its author. In the context of diaspora literature, such as the works of Nikkei authors, this can be particularly problematic, as the themes of displacement, identity, and cultural hybridity are deeply intertwined with historical and social experiences.  Ignoring these external factors may result in a superficial or incomplete understanding of the text's significance and its engagement with the complexities of diaspora.

Moreover, the New Critical emphasis on the autonomy of the text can overlook the role of the reader in constructing meaning. While New Critics aimed for objectivity, their interpretations are still shaped by their own cultural and historical positions. The idea that a text has a single, definitive meaning that can be objectively discovered through close reading has been challenged by subsequent critical theories that highlight the multiplicity of interpretations and the active role of the reader in the meaning-making process.

In the specific case of Nikkei diaspora literature, a purely New Critical approach might struggle to fully address the profound impact of historical events like incarceration or forced removal, which are often central to the narratives. While the textual traces of these experiences would be evident, a comprehensive understanding might require engaging with the historical and social context that informs these narratives and shapes the experiences of the characters. Therefore, while close reading remains a valuable skill, relying solely on New Criticism can limit the scope and depth of analysis, particularly for literature that is deeply engaged with social and historical realities.

Conclusion

New Criticism, with its emphasis on close reading and the autonomy of the text, provides a valuable set of tools for literary analysis. When applied to Nikkei diaspora literature, this approach can illuminate the intricate ways in which themes of identity, displacement, and cultural hybridity are embedded within the language, structure, and imagery of the works. By focusing on the internal coherence of the text, critics can uncover the subtle nuances and complexities of these experiences as they are represented through literary devices.

However, it is crucial to acknowledge the limitations of a purely New Critical approach, particularly its exclusion of historical and cultural contexts. While close reading provides a foundational understanding of the text, a more comprehensive analysis of Nikkei diaspora literature often necessitates engaging with the historical, social, and political forces that have shaped the experiences of Nikkei communities. Therefore, while New Criticism offers valuable insights into the intrinsic qualities of the text, it is often most effective when used in conjunction with other critical approaches that can account for the broader contexts in which these literary works are created and read.

Ultimately, understanding the principles and application of New Criticism enhances our ability to engage thoughtfully with literary texts, including the rich and diverse body of work that constitutes Nikkei diaspora literature. By appreciating the power of close reading and the intricate craftsmanship of literary expression, we can gain a deeper understanding of the human experiences reflected in these narratives.

Further reading

Brooks, Cleanth. The Well Wrought Urn: Studies in the Structure of Poetry. Harcourt, Brace & World, 1947.

A seminal work of New Criticism. Brooks applies close reading techniques to analyse canonical English poems, arguing for the organic unity and complexity of the literary work itself, independent of authorial intent or historical context.

Brooks, Cleanth, and Robert Penn Warren. Understanding Poetry: An Anthology for College Students. 3rd ed., Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1960.

Originally published in 1938, this hugely influential textbook disseminated New Critical methods of close reading and formal analysis to generations of university students, shaping literary pedagogy for decades. Later editions refine the approach.

Eliot, T. S. "Tradition and the Individual Talent." The Sacred Wood: Essays on Poetry and Criticism, Methuen, 1920, pp. 47-59.

While not a New Critic himself, Eliot's emphasis on the impersonality of poetry and the idea of literature forming an autonomous tradition significantly influenced the New Critics' focus on the text as an objective artefact.

Ransom, John Crowe. The New Criticism. New Directions, 1941.

The book that gave the movement its name. Ransom surveys the work of critics like I. A. Richards, T. S. Eliot, and William Empson, while also outlining his own critical principles, advocating for an ontological critic focused on the poem's unique being.

Richards, I. A. Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgment. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1929.

A foundational text for close reading. Richards documents his experiments presenting poems anonymously to Cambridge students, revealing difficulties in interpretation and highlighting the need for rigorous attention to the text's language and tone.

Wimsatt, W. K., Jr., and Monroe C. Beardsley. "The Affective Fallacy." The Sewanee Review, vol. 57, no. 1, 1949, pp. 31–55. Reproduced in Wimsatt, The Verbal Icon.

Argues against judging a literary work based on the emotional response it elicits in the reader. Like the "Intentional Fallacy," it seeks to establish the text's autonomy.

Wimsatt, W. K., Jr., and Monroe C. Beardsley. "The Intentional Fallacy." The Sewanee Review, vol. 54, no. 3, 1946, pp. 468–88. Reproduced in Wimsatt, The Verbal Icon.

This famous essay argues that the author's intended meaning is irrelevant to the interpretation of a literary work. Meaning, they contend, resides within the text itself and its formal structures.

Wimsatt, W. K., Jr. The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry. University of Kentucky Press, 1954.

A collection of Wimsatt's important essays, including "The Intentional Fallacy" and "The Affective Fallacy" (both co-authored with Beardsley), which articulate central tenets of New Criticism concerning the objective status of the literary work.