Romantics

Romantic Poetry

Romantic poetry marked a significant shift in British literature around the late 1700s and early 1800s. Before this time, writing often emphasised reason, order, and social rules. The Romantic poets, however, turned their attention inwards and outwards in new ways. They became deeply interested in exploring the power of nature, the importance of personal feelings, and the experiences of the individual, moving away from the cooler, more formal style of the previous era.

Nature was incredibly important to the Romantics. They didn't just see it as a pretty backdrop, but as a powerful force that was full of meaning, capable of teaching lessons and offering spiritual comfort. Poets like William Wordsworth wrote about how landscapes could affect their mood and understanding. They were fascinated by both the calm beauty of the countryside and the wild, sometimes frightening, power of nature, such as storms or vast mountains – experiences that made them feel awe and wonder.

Feelings took centre stage in Romantic poetry. These writers believed that strong, genuine emotions were vital, often more important than logical thought. Poetry was seen as a way to express these deep feelings honestly. Wordsworth famously described it as the "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings." The Romantics explored a whole range of emotions in their work, from great joy and love to deep sadness, melancholy, and fear, valuing authentic personal expression above all else.

Romantic poets placed a strong focus on the individual. They explored their own private thoughts, memories, and inner lives in their poems. Imagination was celebrated as a special human power, and poets often saw themselves as unique figures, perhaps misunderstood by society. This led to poetry about personal journeys and growth, like Wordsworth's The Prelude, and also to the creation of famous lonely or rebellious characters, such as those found in Lord Byron's work. These core ideas – the deep connection with nature, the value of emotion, and the focus on individual experience – truly defined Romantic poetry.

William Wordsworth

William Wordsworth (1770-1850) is one of the most famous and influential English Romantic poets. Working mostly during the late 18th and early 19th centuries, he played a key role in shifting poetry towards a focus on nature, personal feeling, and everyday life. His collaboration with Samuel Taylor Coleridge on the collection Lyrical Ballads (first published in 1798) is often seen as the starting point for the Romantic movement in English literature.

Nature was central to Wordsworth's life and writing. Having grown up in the beautiful Lake District in Northwest England, he developed a deep spiritual connection to the natural world. He believed that nature could be a powerful teacher, offering moral guidance, comfort, and profound insights. Many of his best-loved poems, such as "Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey" or "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" (often called "Daffodils"), explore how experiences in nature can shape our feelings and memories.

Wordsworth had a specific idea about how poetry and emotions worked together. He famously wrote that poetry begins as "the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings," which are then thought about calmly later on – "emotion recollected in tranquillity." This means memory plays a huge part in his work. He often looked back on past experiences, especially moments from childhood spent in nature, believing these memories were vital in shaping the adult mind and spirit.

He also aimed to write in a more natural style than poets before him, choosing subjects from "common life" and using language closer to everyday speech. Much of his poetry explores the importance of the individual's mind and development; his long autobiographical work, The Prelude, details the "growth of a poet's mind." Through his focus on nature, memory, and the inner self, written in clear language, Wordsworth profoundly shaped English poetry.

Poem and analysis

I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud

I wandered lonely as a cloud

That floats on high o'er vales and hills,

When all at once I saw a crowd,

A host, of golden daffodils;

Beside the lake, beneath the trees,

Fluttering and dancing in the breeze.

Continuous as the stars that shine

And twinkle on the milky way,

They stretched in never-ending line

Along the margin of a bay:

Ten thousand saw I at a glance,

Tossing their heads in sprightly dance.

The waves beside them danced; but they

Out-did the sparkling waves in glee:

A poet could not but be gay,

In such a jocund company:

I gazed—and gazed—but little thought

What wealth the show to me had brought:

For oft, when on my couch I lie

In vacant or in pensive mood,

They flash upon that inward eye

Which is the bliss of solitude;

And then my heart with pleasure fills,

And dances with the daffodils.

Analysis

This well-loved poem opens by establishing the speaker's initial state of detached, aimless solitude, powerfully conveyed through the simile "lonely as a cloud". This mood is abruptly broken by the sudden appearance of a vast field of daffodils, described with vibrant personification as a "crowd" or "host" actively "fluttering and dancing". Wordsworth employs hyperbole ("Ten thousand saw I at a glance") and elevates the scene with cosmic imagery ("Continuous as the stars that shine / And twinkle on the milky way") to emphasise the overwhelming, joyful impact of this unexpected natural spectacle. The sheer number and energetic movement of the flowers serve as a striking contrast to the speaker's initial isolation, immediately engaging his attention and lifting his spirits.

The third stanza focuses on the speaker's immediate emotional response to the daffodils. He notes that while the nearby lake waves also "danced", the flowers surpassed them in sheer "glee", highlighting the intensity of life and joy emanating from the scene. This joyful energy is infectious; the speaker, identifying himself as a "poet" sensitive to such displays, admits he "could not but be gay" in such lively ("jocund") company. However, Wordsworth subtly includes a crucial observation: despite his intense gazing, he initially had "little thought" about the true, lasting significance or "wealth" this seemingly simple moment had bestowed upon him, suggesting that the profound gifts of nature are not always immediately understood.

The final stanza unlocks the true "wealth" of the experience, perfectly encapsulating Wordsworth's famous theory of poetry originating from "emotion recollected in tranquillity." The memory of the daffodils returns spontaneously ("flash upon that inward eye") when the poet is back in civilisation, relaxing on his couch in a thoughtful ("pensive") or empty ("vacant") mood. This "inward eye," the faculty of memory and imagination, becomes the "bliss of solitude," transforming loneliness into a positive state enriched by past experience. Crucially, the recalled image is not static; it actively recreates the initial joy, causing the poet's heart to fill "with pleasure" and metaphorically "dance with the daffodils," demonstrating the enduring power of remembered natural beauty to provide solace and happiness long after the initial encounter.

Discussion

Wordsworth found that remembering nature brought him joy later on. Can thinking back on experiences in nature still bring us deep happiness today, or is our relationship with nature and memory different now?

Activity: Write a short poem

Objective 

To write a short poem (around 8-16 lines) inspired by a moment in nature or a significant personal experience, focusing on observation and feeling, much like Wordsworth did.

Remember how Wordsworth captured the sight of the daffodils and the strong feelings that experience brought him, both at the time and later in memory. This activity invites you to do something similar. Your poem can be about an observation of nature (perhaps something here in Kyoto, or elsewhere) or another personal moment that stands out in your mind.

Instructions

1. Choose Your Moment: Think back to a specific time you noticed something interesting or beautiful in nature (like Wordsworth's daffodils), or recall another personal experience that left a clear impression or feeling. It doesn't need to be dramatic; simple moments often work best.

2. Remember the Details: Try to recall the scene clearly. What did you actually see, hear, or physically feel? Use simple, specific words to describe these details. Crucially, what emotion(s) did you feel at that exact moment? (e.g., surprise, peace, excitement, sadness).

3. Think About It Now (Reflection): Consider how you feel today when you remember this moment. Does the memory bring back the same feeling, or something different? Does it offer comfort, happiness, or maybe make you thoughtful? Including this reflection, like Wordsworth did in his final stanza, can add depth to your poem.

4. Write Your Poem: Aim for about 2 to 4 short stanzas (roughly 8-16 lines in total). Focus on conveying the scene and your feelings clearly and honestly. Don't worry too much about perfect rhymes or using complicated language – simple, direct words are often the most powerful.

5. Prepare to Share (Optional): If time allows this morning, you might be invited to read your short poem or briefly share the experience that inspired it.

Tip: Let your genuine feelings about the moment guide your writing, just as the Romantic poets valued authentic emotion.

Further reading

Abrams, M. H. The Mirror and the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition. Oxford UP, 1953.

This foundational study analyses the major shift from Neoclassical theories of art as imitation (the "mirror" reflecting reality) to Romantic theories emphasising imagination, emotion, and the poet's internal state as the source of poetry (the "lamp" illuminating the world). Abrams traces the philosophical underpinnings of Romanticism, detailing how concepts of nature, the mind, and artistic creation were fundamentally redefined. It remains an indispensable text for understanding the intellectual framework and aesthetic principles that distinguish the Romantic movement from earlier literary traditions.

Abrams, M. H. Natural Supernaturalism: Tradition and Revolution in Romantic Literature. W. W. Norton, 1971.

Abrams argues that Romantic writers undertook a significant project of secularizing Judeo-Christian narratives and themes, finding modern equivalents for concepts like the biblical Fall, Paradise, and Redemption within human consciousness and the natural world. He contends that Romanticism internalizes the supernatural, presenting a worldview where spiritual meaning is discovered through personal experience, interaction with nature, and the power of the imagination. This comprehensive study offers a powerful lens for interpreting Romanticism's engagement with and transformation of inherited religious frameworks.

Blake, William. Songs of Innocence and of Experience. 1794. Edited by Andrew Lincoln, Princeton UP / William Blake Trust, 1994. (Blake Trust/Tate edition recommended for integrated text/images).

This collection of poems, originally produced as illuminated books, presents Blake's unique vision through contrasting perspectives on the human condition. 'Innocence' explores themes of childhood, nature, and divine love with apparent simplicity, while 'Experience' reveals the harsh realities of oppression, hypocrisy, and disillusionment in the adult world. Using symbolic language and striking imagery, Blake critiques industrial society, organised religion, and repressive reason, championing imagination and spiritual liberation. Essential for understanding Blake's distinct contribution to the era's concerns.

Butler, Marilyn. Romantics, Rebels and Reactionaries: English Literature and its Background, 1760-1830. Oxford UP, 1981.

Offering a significant historicist critique, Butler challenges unified views of Romanticism by situating its writers firmly within the political and social contexts of the French Revolution and its aftermath. She argues against seeing Romanticism solely as a movement defined by imagination or rebellion, revealing the diverse and sometimes conservative or 'reactionary' ideologies present among different authors. Butler emphasises the specific historical pressures shaping literary production and warns against interpreting Romantic works through purely aesthetic or later theoretical lenses.

Curran, Stuart, editor. The Cambridge Companion to British Romanticism. 2nd ed., Cambridge UP, 2010.

This collection offers a wide-ranging introduction to British Romanticism through essays contributed by leading scholars. It covers major authors, key themes (nature, revolution, gender, the sublime), literary genres beyond poetry (drama, the novel), historical and cultural contexts (publishing, science, religion), and the reception of Romanticism. The volume reflects contemporary critical approaches, including attention to women writers and less-canonical figures, providing an invaluable resource for students and researchers seeking a broad overview of the field.

Feldman, Paula R., editor. British Women Poets of the Romantic Era. Johns Hopkins UP, 1997.

This groundbreaking anthology significantly broadened the canon of Romantic poetry by recovering and presenting the work of numerous women poets active during the period. Including figures like Anna Laetitia Barbauld, Charlotte Smith, Mary Robinson, and Felicia Hemans, the collection demonstrates the range and quality of poetry written by women, engaging with themes of nature, sensibility, politics, domesticity, and social critique. The introduction and biographical notes provide crucial context, making this an essential resource for a more inclusive understanding of Romantic literature.

Keats, John. Complete Poems. Edited by Jack Stillinger, Belknap Press of Harvard UP, 1982.

This standard edition gathers the complete poetic works of John Keats, a central figure of the second generation of Romantic poets. His work, including the renowned Odes ("Ode to a Nightingale," "Ode on a Grecian Urn," "To Autumn"), sonnets (e.g., "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer"), and narrative poems ("The Eve of St. Agnes," "Lamia"), is celebrated for its intense sensory imagery, exploration of beauty, mortality, and pleasure, and the concept of "Negative Capability." Keats's poetry exemplifies the Romantic preoccupation with aesthetic experience and the imaginative apprehension of truth.

McGann, Jerome J. The Romantic Ideology: A Critical Investigation. U of Chicago P, 1983.

A highly influential work of criticism associated with New Historicism, McGann's book challenges the traditional view of Romantic literature as transcending historical circumstances. He argues that Romantic poems often construct an "ideology" that masks or displaces contemporary social and political conflicts through aestheticisation and a focus on timeless, universal themes. McGann calls for a critical reading that contextualises Romantic works within their specific historical moments, analysing their ideological functions. This book prompted significant debate and reshaped approaches to studying the period.

Wordsworth, William. The Prelude: 1799, 1805, 1850. Edited by Jonathan Wordsworth, M. H. Abrams, and Stephen Gill, Norton Critical Edition, W. W. Norton, 1979.

This edition presents the three main versions of Wordsworth's landmark autobiographical poem, which charts the "Growth of a Poet's Mind." The poem details his childhood in the Lake District, his relationship with nature, his education, his experiences during the French Revolution, and his subsequent philosophical development. The Prelude is a cornerstone of Romanticism, exemplifying its focus on subjective consciousness, the formative power of nature and memory, and the construction of the self through imaginative reflection on experience. The Norton edition provides valuable comparative texts and critical essays.

Wordsworth, William, and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Lyrical Ballads. 1798. Edited by R. L. Brett and A. R. Jones, 2nd ed., Routledge, 1991.

This collection is widely considered the foundational text of British Romanticism. It brought together Wordsworth's poems focusing on nature and incidents from "common life" (e.g., "Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey") and Coleridge's explorations of the supernatural and psychological (e.g., "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner"). Later editions included Wordsworth's crucial Preface, which articulated key tenets of Romantic poetic theory, such as the use of "language really used by men" and the definition of poetry as originating from "emotion recollected in tranquillity." Essential for understanding the movement's programmatic origins.