Middle English

Middle English

Middle English Literature marks a vital transitional phase in English literary history, bridging the gap between Old English (Anglo-Saxon) and Early Modern English. Spanning roughly from the late 12th to the late 15th century, this period witnessed significant linguistic, literary, and cultural shifts in England. The Norman Conquest of 1066 is generally considered the starting point, while the introduction of printing in 1476 and the English Reformation from the 1530s often signify its conclusion. Regardless of exact dates, Middle English Literature is characterised by substantial language evolution, the emergence of new literary forms and themes, and the growing prominence of English as a literary medium.

The historical and social context profoundly shaped Middle English Literature. The Norman Conquest initially led to French dominating as the language of the elite, temporarily hindering English literary production. However, the devastating Black Death in the mid-14th century caused a significant population decline, including French speakers, which inadvertently contributed to the resurgence of English. The protracted Hundred Years' War with France further fostered English national identity and the prestige of the English language, which by 1362 had replaced French in Parliament and law courts. The rise of a prosperous merchant class also likely influenced literary patronage and themes, as their values and increasing literacy created a new audience for English writings.

The Middle English language itself underwent a considerable transformation from Old English. The complex grammatical inflections of Old English were significantly simplified, with word order becoming more crucial for conveying meaning. A defining feature was the extensive borrowing of vocabulary from Anglo-Norman French, enriching the English lexicon particularly in areas like law, government, and the arts. Additionally, Middle English incorporated words from earlier Scandinavian settlements and Latin, contributing to its diverse nature. It's important to note that Middle English was not uniform but comprised distinct regional dialects, including Northern, East Midland, West Midland, and Southern, with the East Midland dialect of London eventually forming the basis for Standard English.

The Middle English period produced influential literary figures. Geoffrey Chaucer, the most prominent, famously wrote in the vernacular English of London, exemplified by his masterpiece The Canterbury Tales, which offered a vibrant portrayal of medieval society and the versatility of the language. William Langland's allegorical poem Piers Plowman provided social and religious commentary in alliterative verse. John Gower, a contemporary of Chaucer, wrote major works in English, French, and Latin, with his Confessio Amantis exploring themes of love and morality. Sir Thomas Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur compiled and reshaped Arthurian legends in English prose, significantly influencing subsequent literature. These and other authors, along with anonymous works like Sir Gawain and the Green Knight and early prose by figures like Julian of Norwich and Margery Kempe, showcase the literary achievements of the era.

Middle English Literature was characterised by several key themes and genres. Romance narratives, focusing on chivalry, adventure, and courtly love, were immensely popular. Allegory, where characters and events symbolised abstract ideas, was prevalent in religious and moralistic writings. Religious writing itself was a significant category, encompassing mystery plays dramatising biblical stories, morality plays teaching ethical lessons, and devotional prose and poetry. Other genres included lyric poetry, ballads, and didactic literature. The resurgence of English, the fostering of English cultural identity through vernacular literature, and the transformative impact of William Caxton's printing press all underscore the enduring cultural and literary significance of the Middle English period, laying a vital foundation for the future development of English language and literature.

The Canterbury Tales

The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer is a collection of stories told by a diverse group of pilgrims as they travel together from London to Canterbury Cathedral. They're on a pilgrimage to the shrine of Saint Thomas Becket.

The framework of the poem is this journey. To pass the time on the road, the Host of the Tabard Inn, where they all meet, proposes a storytelling contest. Each pilgrim is supposed to tell four tales – two on the way to Canterbury and two on the return journey – with the best storyteller winning a free supper.

The tales themselves are incredibly varied in genre and tone. You've got everything from chivalric romances and fabliaux (bawdy, humorous tales) to religious allegories and tragic stories. The pilgrims telling these tales are just as diverse, representing a real cross-section of medieval English society: a Knight, a Miller, a Wife of Bath, a Pardoner, a Clerk, and many more. Their tales often reflect their own social standing, personality, and even their flaws.

Although Chaucer never completed the planned 120 tales (he only wrote 24), the collection we have offers a fascinating and often humorous glimpse into medieval life, beliefs, and social dynamics. It explores themes of love, marriage, religion, social class, morality, and the human condition in general. The General Prologue, which introduces the pilgrims, is particularly famous for its vivid and satirical character sketches.

The Canterbury Tales is a vibrant and unfinished collection of medieval stories, held together by the narrative thread of a pilgrimage and offering a rich and entertaining portrait of Chaucer's England.

Activity: Design a Knight's Coat of Arms and Motto

We're going to create a fictional knight and design their personal emblem. Understanding how symbols and mottos represent character and values can help us analyse similar elements when reading literature.

Here's what you need to do:

1. Form Small Groups: Get into teams of 3 or 4 people. 

2. Invent Your Knight: As a group, quickly decide on your knight's key traits and perhaps a famous deed or two. What are they like? 

3. Design Their Coat of Arms: Create a visual emblem for your knight.

   • Choose a shield shape.

   • Pick 2-3 colours that represent their qualities (e.g., red for courage, blue for loyalty, gold for generosity).

   • Add symbols (like animals or objects) that link to your knight's personality or deeds. 

4. Write a Motto: Come up with a short, memorable English phrase that captures your knight's main principle or spirit.

5. Prepare to Share: Decide who in your group will present your knight, explaining the choices for the coat of arms and motto. 

6. Share with Class: Present your knight's design and explain its meaning.

Don't worry about being perfect – just have a go and be creative!

Further reading

Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Canterbury Tales. Edited by Jill Mann, Penguin Classics, 2005.

This collection of stories, presented as part of a storytelling contest by a diverse group of pilgrims travelling to Canterbury, is a cornerstone of English literature. Chaucer masterfully employs the East Midland dialect of London, showcasing the versatility of English for varied narrative forms, from chivalric romance and fabliau to saint's life and allegory. The work provides a vibrant panorama of late 14th-century English society, exploring themes of love, marriage, social class, religious corruption, and human nature with remarkable wit and psychological insight.

Anonymous. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight. Edited and translated by J.R.R. Tolkien, new edition edited by Christopher Tolkien, HarperCollins, 2020.

This late 14th-century alliterative poem is a masterpiece of the Arthurian romance genre. It recounts Sir Gawain's acceptance of a bizarre challenge from a mysterious Green Knight, testing his chivalric virtues of courage, honesty, and loyalty. The poem intricately weaves together themes of courtesy, temptation, human failing, and the relationship between nature and civilisation, all within a sophisticated narrative structure and rich descriptive language characteristic of the "Alliterative Revival."

Langland, William. Piers Plowman: A New Translation of the B-Text. Translated by A.V.C. Schmidt, Oxford World's Classics, 2009.

This profound allegorical dream vision poem, existing in multiple versions (A, B, and C texts), offers a powerful critique of social and religious life in 14th-century England. Through the dreamer Will's quest for "Truth" and his encounters with the allegorical figure Piers the Plowman, Langland explores issues of social injustice, clerical corruption, the nature of salvation, and the meaning of a truly Christian life. Its use of alliterative verse connects it to older English poetic traditions while addressing contemporary crises.

Malory, Sir Thomas. Le Morte Darthur: The Winchester Manuscript. Edited by Helen Cooper, Oxford World's Classics, 1998.

Compiled and reshaped in the late 15th century, Malory's work is the most influential English prose account of the Arthurian legends, chronicling the rise and fall of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table. It synthesises numerous French and English sources into a comprehensive narrative that explores themes of chivalry, loyalty, betrayal, love, and the tragic destiny of a noble fellowship. Caxton's printed edition of 1485 ensured its widespread influence on subsequent English literature and conceptions of the Arthurian world.

Julian of Norwich. Revelations of Divine Love. Translated by Elizabeth Spearing, introduction by A.C. Spearing, Penguin Classics, 1998.

This is considered the first book in English known to be written by a woman. Julian, an anchoress in Norwich, recounts a series of sixteen mystical visions of Christ she experienced during a severe illness in 1373. Her work is a profound theological meditation on God's love, the problem of sin, and the nature of suffering, characterised by its optimistic theology and striking imagery, such as the concept of Christ as a loving mother. It is a key text in English devotional literature and mystical writing.

Everyman. Everyman and Mankind, edited by Douglas Bruster and Eric Rasmussen, Arden Early Modern Drama, Bloomsbury, 2009.

This late 15th-century work is the most famous example of a morality play, a genre designed to teach Christian doctrine and ethics to a lay audience. The allegorical plot follows the protagonist Everyman, representing all humanity, as he is summoned by Death and discovers that worldly goods and fair-weather friends desert him, while only Good Deeds will accompany him to his final reckoning. Its clear didactic message and personified abstractions illustrate a central form of medieval drama.

Pearsall, Derek. Old English and Middle English Poetry. Routledge History of English Poetry, vol. 1, Routledge, 1977.

Pearsall's scholarly work provides a comprehensive survey and critical analysis of English poetry from the Anglo-Saxon period through the 15th century. For the Middle English era, it examines the diverse forms, genres, and linguistic contexts, discussing major figures like Chaucer, Gower, and Langland, as well as anonymous works and popular traditions. This study is valuable for understanding the continuities and innovations in poetic practice, the influence of social and cultural changes on literature, and the development of English as a poetic medium.