What are the major schools of literary criticism? 

Textual Analysis & Form

Formalism / New Criticism concentrates on the intrinsic elements of a literary work, such as its language, structure, tone, and imagery. This approach emphasises close reading and believes that the meaning of a text is self-contained and can be discovered through careful analysis of its formal properties, independent of authorial intent, historical context, or reader response.

Structuralism seeks to uncover the underlying systems and structures that govern all forms of human expression, including literature. It posits that meaning is not inherent in individual elements but arises from their relationships within a larger, organised system of signs and symbols. Structuralist analysis often looks for binary oppositions and recurring patterns to understand how meaning is produced.

Narrative Theory examines the ways in which stories are constructed and the effects they have on audiences. It explores various narrative techniques, such as plot structure, point of view, character development, and the use of time, analysing how these elements combine to create meaning and shape our understanding of the world. It studies the universal and culturally specific aspects of storytelling.

Reader-Response Criticism shifts the focus from the text itself to the reader's experience of the text. This approach argues that meaning is not fixed or predetermined but is actively created by the reader during the act of reading. Different readers, with their unique backgrounds, experiences, and perspectives, will interpret a text in different ways, making the reading process a dynamic and subjective interaction.

Societal Power Structures & Identity

Marxist Criticism applies the principles of Marxist theory to the analysis of literature and culture. It examines how works of art reflect and critique class struggles, economic inequalities, and the power dynamics inherent in capitalist societies. Marxist critics often explore themes of exploitation, alienation, and the potential for social change.

Feminist Theory critiques historical and contemporary gender inequalities, examining how literature and culture represent and reinforce patriarchal structures. It focuses on the roles, experiences, and perspectives of women, advocating for gender equality and challenging traditional gender norms. Feminist theory explores a wide range of issues, including representation, power, and the construction of gender identity.

Critical Race Theory examines the intersection of race, law, and power, focusing on the ways in which systemic racism operates within legal and social institutions. It argues that race is a social construct used to maintain power hierarchies and that historical inequalities continue to impact contemporary society. Critical Race Theory seeks to challenge and dismantle these systems of oppression.

Ethnic Studies explores the social, historical, cultural, and political experiences of various ethnic groups, often with a particular focus on minority groups. It examines issues of racial and ethnic identity, cross-cultural interactions, immigration, and the impact of racism and discrimination on individuals and communities. It promotes understanding and appreciation of diverse cultural perspectives.

Queer Theory challenges traditional notions of sexuality and gender, questioning binary categories and heteronormative assumptions. It examines the experiences and representations of LGBTQ+ individuals, advocating for fluid and diverse identities. Queer Theory often employs deconstructive methods to analyse and disrupt established norms and power structures related to sexuality and gender.

Postcolonial Theory examines the cultural, political, and economic legacies of colonialism and imperialism. It focuses on the impact of colonial rule on formerly colonised societies, exploring themes of cultural identity, resistance, diaspora, and the ongoing struggles for self-determination. Postcolonial theory analyses power dynamics between colonisers and the colonised, and the lingering effects of these relationships.

Cultural Studies is an interdisciplinary field that examines the production, circulation, and consumption of cultural meanings and practices. It analyses how culture shapes and is shaped by social, economic, and political forces, often focusing on issues of power, identity, and representation. Cultural Studies integrates social theory and political critique to understand the role of culture in maintaining and challenging social hierarchies.

Focused on Broader Contexts & Systems

Globalisation Theory examines the increasing interconnectedness of the world through economic, political, cultural, and technological exchanges. It analyses the effects of globalisation on national identities, local cultures, and global power dynamics. Globalisation theory explores the tensions between homogenisation and diversification, and the challenges and opportunities presented by an increasingly interdependent world.

Ecocriticism explores the relationship between literature and the physical environment. It examines how nature is represented in literary works, how cultural attitudes towards nature are shaped by literature, and the ethical and political implications of human interactions with the environment. Ecocriticism often promotes environmental awareness and sustainability.

Memory Studies investigates how individuals and societies remember and commemorate the past. It explores the role of memory in shaping personal and collective identities, and the ways in which historical events are interpreted and reinterpreted over time. Memory Studies examines the relationship between memory, history, and trauma, and the impact of collective memory on current social and political dynamics.

Focused on Interpretation and Meaning-Making

Psychoanalytical Criticism applies the theories of Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, and other psychoanalysts to the interpretation of literature. It explores the unconscious motivations of characters and authors, examining themes of desire, repression, and the complexities of the human psyche. Psychoanalytic critics often analyse dreams, symbols, and recurring patterns to uncover hidden meanings within a text.

Deconstruction is a philosophical and literary approach that challenges the notion of stable and fixed meanings in language and texts. It argues that meaning is inherently unstable and context-dependent, and that texts are often characterised by internal contradictions and ambiguities. Deconstruction seeks to expose the underlying assumptions and power structures that shape our understanding of language and meaning.

Translation Studies examines the theory and practice of translating languages, exploring the complexities of linguistic and cultural transfer. It analyses the challenges of conveying meaning across different languages and cultures, considering the impact of translation on interpretation, communication, and cross-cultural understanding. Translation Studies also addresses the ethical and political dimensions of translation.

Postmodernism is a broad intellectual and cultural movement characterised by skepticism towards grand narratives, universal truths, and objective reality. In literature, postmodernism often manifests as self-reflexivity, irony, fragmentation, and a blurring of boundaries between genres and styles. It challenges traditional notions of authorship, meaning, and the relationship between text and reader.