Diaspora

HISTORY OF THE ANGLOPHONE JAPANESE DIASPORA 

Here is a detailed timeline of the Japanese diaspora in the US, Canada, Australia, and the UK:

Mid-16th Century:

• 1587: A young Japanese boy is recorded as accompanying a Franciscan friar to North America (US).

Mid-19th Century:

• 1853: Commodore Matthew Perry's naval expedition arrives in Tokyo harbour, forcibly ending Japan's centuries-long policy of seclusion (US).

• 1854: Commodore Matthew Perry's expedition leads to the forced opening of Japan to Western influence, triggering socio-economic transformations in Japan (Canada, US).

• 1862: The First Japanese Embassy to Europe arrives in London, comprising samurai and support staff, staying at Claridge's Hotel. The mission seeks to postpone treaty stipulations on trade and residence (UK).

• 1863: The Chōshū Five, a group of Japanese students, arrive in the UK to study Chemistry at University College London (UCL) under Professor Alexander William Williamson. The British bombard Kagoshima, demonstrating Western military superiority to Japan (UK).

• 1865: A group of fifteen Satsuma students, along with other students and supervisors, arrive in the UK and also enrol at UCL with Professor Williamson (UK).

• 1866: The Bakufu (Shogunate) dispatches its own students to the UK (UK).

• 1868: The Meiji Restoration begins in Japan, ushering in rapid modernization, urbanization, and industrialization, which creates social disruption and agricultural decline, acting as "push" factors for emigration (Canada, US).

• 1869-1870: The first official records of Japanese residents appear in Los Angeles County, USA (US).

• 1876: Nonami Kojiro from Shimane prefecture signs onto a pearling lugger in Sydney, Australia, marking one of the earliest documented Japanese individuals in the Australian pearling industry (Australia).

• 1877: Manzo Nagano arrives and settles in Canada, becoming the first known Japanese individual to do so (Canada).

• Around 1878: Kiryu Nakayama from Wakayama Prefecture arrives in Australia and is considered a pioneer in the development of Thursday Island (Australia).

• 1879: Mitsui & Co.'s London office opens, establishing an early Japanese corporate presence in the UK (UK).

Late 19th Century:

• By 1884: Official records indicate 264 Japanese citizens residing in Britain, primarily officials and students (UK).

• 1885: Significant Japanese communities are present in North Queensland, Australia (Australia).

• 1891: The Japan Society is founded in the UK to promote Anglo-Japanese relations (UK).

• November 1892: The first organized group of Japanese labourers specifically recruited for the sugar industry arrives in Queensland, Australia (Australia).

• 1893: The Thursday Island Nihonjin-kai (Japanese Club/Society) is founded in Australia, serving as a semi-official administrative and social centre (Australia). Japanese labourers begin arriving in significant numbers for the sugar cane industry in Queensland, Australia, with an estimated two-thirds of the Queensland Japanese population in this sector post-1893 (Australia). Japanese divers constitute the largest national group employed in the Thursday Island pearling industry (Australia).

• March 1894: On Thursday Island, Australia, only 26 of the 222 Japanese residents are women, highlighting the significant gender imbalance (Australia). A substantial Japanese quarter known as "Yokohama" or "Japtown" exists on Thursday Island, comprising 22 buildings (Australia).

• By 1897: The number of Japanese residents in Australia surpasses 2,000 (Australia).

• 1898: Queensland legislation is enacted specifically to prevent aliens, including Japanese migrants, from owning or renting pearling boats (Australia).

• 1899: The Buddhist Mission of North America (BMNA), the forerunner of the Buddhist Churches of America (BCA), is officially established in San Francisco, USA, following the arrival of missionaries from Japan (US). Early Buddhist temples are founded in Sacramento (US).

Early 20th Century (Pre-WWII):

• 1900: Yamanaka & Co., an Asian art dealership, opens premises in New Bond Street, London (UK). A visitor describes Thursday Island, Australia, as "more a Japanese settlement than a British colony" (Australia). Early Buddhist temples are founded in Fresno (US).

• 1901: Australian Federation occurs (Australia). The number of Japanese immigrants residing in Australia is 3,593 (Australia). The overall Asian population in Australia stands at 1.25% (Australia). The Immigration Restriction Act is enacted in Australia, introducing the dictation test (Australia). Early Buddhist temples are founded in Seattle and Oakland (US). The number of Japanese in Canada grows to almost 5,000 (Canada).

• 1902: Early Buddhist temples are founded in San Jose (US). The Anglo-Japanese Alliance is signed, fostering a more favorable environment for the Japanese community and bilateral trade in the UK (UK). Between 1902 and 1903, only 46 out of 805 dictation tests are passed in Australia (Australia).

• 1903: Early Buddhist temples are founded in Portland (US).

• 1904-1909: Only 6 out of 554 dictation tests are passed in Australia (Australia).

• 1904: Japanese immigrants already residing in Australia are granted an exemption from the dictation test for residency permit extensions (Australia).

• After 1905: The dictation test language in Australia is amended to 'any prescribed language', increasing arbitrary power of officials (Australia).

• 1907: The Vancouver Anti-Asian Riots occur in British Columbia, targeting Chinese and Japanese neighbourhoods. The Asiatic Exclusion League is involved. Japanese residents in Japantown (Powell Street) defend their neighbourhood (Canada). Similar disturbances occur in Bellingham, Washington (Canada).

• 1908: Japanese divers constitute the largest national group employed in the Broome pearling industry, Australia (Australia). The Hayashi-Lemieux Agreement, also known as the "Gentlemen's Agreement," is reached between Canada and Japan, limiting Japanese male labourers and domestic servants to 400 per year, but not initially wives and children (Canada).

• By 1909: An estimated two-thirds of California's Japanese population is engaged in farm work (US).

• By 1910: Broome, Australia, becomes the world's largest pearling centre (Australia). The Japanese population in Hawaii is four times larger than on the U.S. mainland (US). Los Angeles hosts the largest Issei population of any city in California (US).

• By the end of the first decade of the 20th century: The Japanese community in Britain exceeds five hundred individuals (UK).

• 1912: Yamanaka & Co. in London is granted a Royal Warrant by George V (UK). The Koyasan Buddhist Temple is established in Little Tokyo, Los Angeles, one of the oldest continuously operating Buddhist institutions in the city (US).

• 1913: Mikimoto establishes its first cultured pearl boutique outside Japan in London (UK). The Alien Land Law is enacted in California, denying Issei the right to own or lease land (US).

• After World War I (post-1918): The decline in the pearl-shell market prompts some Japanese residents in Australia to relocate to mainland cities and establish small businesses (Australia).

• By 1919: Broome, Australia, is home to a significant Japanese population of 1,200 (Australia).

• 1920: Another Alien Land Law is enacted in California (US).

• By 1921: Powell Street in Vancouver, Canada, boasts 578 ethnic Japanese businesses and organizations (Canada).

• 1922: The Cable Act is passed in the US, stripping American women of their citizenship if they marry "aliens ineligible for citizenship," including Issei men (US).

• 1923: The annual quota for Japanese male immigrants to Canada is reduced to 150 under the Gentlemen's Agreement (Canada).

• 1924: The Immigration Act (Johnson-Reed Act) is passed in the US, effectively ending Japanese immigration through an "alien ineligible to citizenship" clause (US).

• 1927: It has been eighteen years since any applicant successfully passed the dictation test in Australia (Australia).

• 1928: The Canadian quota of 150 Japanese immigrants per year under the Gentlemen's Agreement is expanded to include wives and children, further restricting family immigration (Canada).

• 1929: The Japanese American Citizens League (JACL) is established in the US, composed primarily of Nisei (US).

• 1930s: By the late 1930s, an estimated 13,000 Japanese immigrants to Canada had returned to Japan (Canada).

• 1935: The Japanese population in Britain reaches its pre-war peak of 1,871 (UK).

World War II Era:

• Prior to WWII: Approximately 95% of all Japanese Canadians reside in British Columbia (Canada). Japanese American farmers in California produce between 30-35% (by value) of the state's commercial truck crops (US).

• July 28, 1941: Japanese assets in Australia are frozen (Australia).

• December 1941: The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor occurs, marking the US entry into World War II (Canada, UK, US). The outbreak of war between Japan and the Allied nations begins (Australia).

• Following Pearl Harbor (December 1941 onwards): Japanese nationals in Allied countries are often classified as "enemy aliens" (Australia, UK, US). In Australia, widespread suspicion leads to surveillance and restrictions (Australia). In the UK, 114 Japanese men, predominantly businessmen and merchant seamen, are detained as "enemy aliens" (UK). In the US, Japanese American community leaders, including Buddhist ministers, are among the first to be arrested (US).

• February 19, 1942: President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs Executive Order 9066, authorizing the forced removal and incarceration of individuals of Japanese descent from the US West Coast (US).

• By mid-1942: Over 110,000 individuals of Japanese descent, both citizens and non-citizens, are removed from their homes and placed in incarceration camps in remote inland areas of the US (US). In Canada, all persons of Japanese racial origin are ordered removed from within 100 miles of the British Columbia coast (Canada). Japanese Canadians are interned in camps in the interior of British Columbia (Canada).

• 1943: The infamous "loyalty questionnaire" (Application for Leave Clearance) is administered in US incarceration camps, creating divisions within the Japanese American community (US). The all-Nisei 100th Infantry Battalion is activated in the US Army (US).

• 1944: The 100th Infantry Battalion is integrated with the 442nd Regimental Combat Team in the US Army (US).

• August 1945: Japan surrenders, ending World War II (Australia, Canada, US).

• Post-WWII (1945 onwards): Japanese Australians are largely repatriated to Japan, with only a small number allowed to remain, often those married to non-Japanese Australians or considered essential workers (Australia). Surviving Buddhist temples in the US often serve as temporary hostels for returning Japanese American families (US). In Canada, the government implements a policy requiring Japanese Canadians to move east of the Rockies or be "repatriated" to Japan. Around 4,000 Japanese Canadians are sent to Japan, many of whom were Canadian citizens (Canada).

Post-WWII to late 20th Century:

• 1949: The Buddhist Churches of America (BCA) establishes the Institute of Buddhist Studies in Berkeley, California (US).

• Prior to the 1970s: General immigration from Japan to Australia remains highly restricted, mainly limited to war brides and those on temporary permits (Australia).

• 1952: Diplomatic relations between Australia and Japan are re-established (Australia).

• Mid-1950s: Japanese (and Okinawan) indentured labour is briefly re-introduced to the pearling industry in Darwin and Broome, Australia, under controlled conditions (Australia). Japanese banks that closed their London offices during WWII begin reopening them (UK). Dr. Sayoko Oda's research identifies broad groups of Japanese women who settled in Britain since the 1950s (UK).

• 1957: The Agreement on Commerce between Australia and Japan is signed, granting Most Favoured Nation trading status and laying the groundwork for extensive economic engagement (Australia).

• 1960s: Japanese companies begin establishing a significant corporate presence in the UK, particularly from the late 1960s and 1970s onwards (UK).

• 1965: The Japanese School in London opens as a supplementary school (UK).

• Late 1960s: Japan surpasses the United Kingdom to become Australia's largest export market (Australia).

• 1970s: Japanese companies like Sony establish manufacturing plants in the UK (UK).

• 1976: The Basic Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation (Nara Treaty) between Australia and Japan is signed, solidifying a positive trajectory for bilateral relations and promoting cultural exchange (Australia).

• 1978: Hitachi establishes a joint venture with GEC in Aberdare, Wales (UK). The Japan Centre is established in London (UK).

• 1979: Mitsubishi Electric establishes a manufacturing plant in Haddington, Scotland (UK).

• 1980s: The Redress movement gains momentum in Canada, led by the National Association of Japanese Canadians (NAJC) and supported by the Sansei generation (Canada). Significant Japanese investment in the UK continues (UK).

• 1986: Honda establishes a manufacturing plant in Swindon, UK, following a partnership with Rover (UK). Nissan establishes a manufacturing plant in Sunderland, UK (UK). The Japan-born population in Victoria, Australia, doubles from 1976, reaching 2,744 (Australia).

• 1987: The Japanese School in London relocates to its current Acton site and becomes a full-time institution (UK). Mitsubishi Electric establishes a plant in Livingston, Scotland, for VCRs (UK).

• 1988: The Canadian government issues a formal apology and provides compensation for the injustices of wartime measures against Japanese Canadians (Canada).

• 1989: The Civil Liberties Act (Redress Act) is signed into law in the US, providing a formal apology and reparations to Japanese Americans incarcerated during WWII (US). Toyota establishes a manufacturing plant in Derbyshire, UK (UK).

Late 20th Century to Contemporary Era:

• 1990s: The Yaohan Plaza shopping center opens in northwest London, targeting the Japanese community (UK). Sogo department store has an outlet in London (UK). London has over 60 Japanese restaurants and eight dedicated Japanese food shops (UK). Many Nisei and Sansei in the US enter professional fields (US).

• 1994: There are 54,415 Japanese nationals registered as living in the UK, with 38,000 in Greater London (UK).

• Mid-1990s: A significant majority (over 65%) of Australia's Japan-born residents have arrived since the mid-1990s (Australia).

• 2001: The UK Census records 37,535 Japan-born residents in the UK, with over half in Greater London (UK).

• 2009: The Japan Matsuri festival is held annually in Trafalgar Square, London (UK).

• 2011: The Australian Census indicates 35,378 Japan-born residents (Australia).

• 2014: An estimate from the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs places the number of Japanese nationals resident in the UK at 67,258 (UK).

• 2015: The Office for National Statistics (ONS) estimates 43,000 people born in Japan are resident in the UK (UK).

• 2016: The Japan-born population in Victoria, Australia, increases to 8,515 (Australia).

• 2017: Sir Kazuo Ishiguro is awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature (UK).

• 2018: Japan House London opens in Kensington (UK).

• October 2020: Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs data indicates 34,125 Japanese nationals residing in Greater London (UK).

• 2021: The Australian Census records 78,049 individuals self-identifying as having Japanese ancestry (Australia). The Census for England and Wales reports 29,510 individuals identifying their ethnicity as Japanese (UK).

• 2022: The Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs reports 94,942 Japanese expatriates in Australia, ranking it as the third-largest overseas Japanese community globally (Australia).

• Present Day (Contemporary Era): Japanese Australians and Japanese Canadians contribute to diverse fields and advocate for social justice. Japanese businesses in the UK continue to evolve, and the Japanese diaspora in the UK is increasingly diverse, including those in arts, academia, and mixed-heritage families. The concept of "Nikkei" is used globally to describe Japanese emigrants and their descendants.